Lecture Notes Beowulf Essay Example for Free

Lecture Notes Beowulf Essay Genre A heroic folk epic rooted in the oral tradition of the Anglo Saxons, Beowulf is an anonymous poem committed to paper by an unknown Christian monk in 1000 Common Era, some 300 years after it was first composed. The manuscript is part of a document known as Cotton Vitellus A housed in a British Library. Beowulf belongs to the epic genre of long, narrative poems dealing with heroic deeds against a background of war and the supernatural and themes of grandeur and significance. Full of legendary myths and somber, elegiac cadences, it has been composed in the Anglo Saxon vernacular and can be classed amongst other great epics such as the Illiad, Odyssey, Aenied and Paradise Lost to name a few. The name Beowulf is a kenning, Bee-Hunter reflecting the warrior heritage of the central character Basic Plot The poem is eponymously named for its hero Bewoulf, a great warrior and later King, who sets out to rescue King Hrothgar and his people from the monster Grendel. During the course of the poem, we see Beowulf slaying first Grendel and then his revenge seeking mother. Beowulf’s final conflict takes place with the Dragon angered by the plundering of the treasure it is guarding. Structure of the Poem There are three prevailing views as to the structure of the poem: -the structure is defined by the three increasingly difficult conflicts Beowulf faces -the structure can also be viewed in terms of kingship for instance, young Beowulf and old Beowulf with a different set of problems to be faced during each phase -the structure is that of interlacing of memories with narratives of present, a cyclical process of action, memory and reflection Background Although the poem is rooted in the Anglo Saxon as well as early Christian traditions, it reflects two distinct value systems frequently at odds with each other. For instance, in line with its Anglo-Saxon origins, the poem celebrates the Germanic heroic code, which, exemplifying the pagan warrior culture, lays stress upon family ties, genealogy, immortality through fame and revenge for wrongs done to one’s kith and kin. It values ancestral heritage and individual reputation. Christianity, on the other hand, believes in immortality in terms of the afterlife and teaches that vengeance is best left to God. Bewoulf and Grendel Bewoulf is not just a warrior and king. He also serves as a cultural ideal and as an incarnation of Anglo Saxon values and beliefs. The ‘Cain-descended’ Grendel, with his innate desire to tear asunder whatever has integrity, represents chaos and disorder, in contrast to Bewoulf, who represents order and cosmos. Grendel is the ultimate exile. Unferth Unferth acts as a foil to Beowulf by accentuating through contrast the character of the latter. He redeems his earlier verbal taunting (flyting) of Beowulf by offering him his sword in a later conflict. Literary devices/techniques Litotes-understatement e. g, ‘Cain had no pleasure from that find’ Kenning-metaphorical descriptions combining two words to offer evocative alternative to original Caesura-a pause in the line of a poem Alliteration- In language, alliteration refers to the repetition of a particular sound in the first syllables of a series of words or phrases.

Surgical Treatment Method of Isthmic Spondylolisthesis

Surgical Treatment Method of Isthmic Spondylolisthesis Comparison of Two and Three Vertebral Segment Posterolateral Fusion in the Treatment of Isthmic Spondylolisthesis Serkan BILGIC, Omer ERSEN, Tolga EGE, Kenan KOCA, Selahattin OZYUREK, Safak EKINCI, Erbil OGUZ, Ali SEHIRLIOGLU ABSTRACT Background Optimal surgical treatment method of isthmic spondylolisthesis remains unclear. Complications can be invited while saving a segment for lumbar motion. Objective The aim of this retrospective study was to determine the effect of the number of fusion levels on the clinical results of adult isthmic spondylolisthesis patients who had undergone posterior instrumentation and PLF. Patients and Methods This retrospective study comprised 37 (20 male, 17 female) patients with isthmic spondylolisthesis who had undergone posterior instrumentation and PLF (Postero-lateral fusion) between January 2005 and May 2011. Pre and post-operative radiological evaluation was made by anteroposterior, lateral, oblique and lateral flexion-extension x-rays. Preoperative spondylolisthesis slippage grading was evaluated according to the Meyerding classification from the preoperative radiographs. Results The mean age of the patients was 36.4 ± 9.2 years and the mean follow-up period was 34.3 months. Two-level fusion was applied to 22 patients and single-level fusion was applied to 15 patients. Decompression was performed on 7 patients in the two-level fusion group and on 6 patients in the single-level fusion group. There were no neurological complication after surgery in either group. No union complications were seen in the two-level PLF group but in the single-level PLF group, screw loosening occurred in 3 patients and screw breakage in 1 due to the pseudoarthrosis. These four patients were revised with two-level PLF. Conclusions This study has demonstrated that two-level posterior instrumentation and PLF with local bone grafts and DBM have significantly better clinical and radiological results than single-level surgery. To avoid potential complications of PLIF, two-level PLF can be an alternative treatment option. Key words:Istmic spondylolisthesis, Posterior lumbar interbody fusion, Fixation Background Lumbar spondylolisthesis is present in about 5% to 6% of the population with various etiopathogenesis. Due to its variant pathological anatomy, the radiological appearance, age and clinical aspect of the patients are different on diagnosis. It generally starts as spondylolysis, a bilateral pars fatigue fracture and becomes spondylolisthesis with a slip of a vertebra over the adjacent one. As the slip increases, disc degeneration and pain starts (1-3). Although conservative treatment is the first treatment option, surgery for symptomatic spondylolisthesis in adults has been found to have better clinical results than conservative treatment choices (3, 4). However, it remains unclear which surgical strategy should be adopted, as there is limited scientific evidence on which to base an optimal treatment method. Discussions on spondylolisthesis treatment have generally focussed on reduction, fusion levels, graft choices, and surgical techniques (5-7). One of the most preferred surgical treatment options for spondylolisthesis is posterior transpedicular instrumentation of the relevant segments and posterolateral fusion (PLF) (5, 7). However, it is still a matter of controversy in literature as to how many levels should be fused and instrumented. Objectives The aim of this retrospective study was to determine the effect of the number of fusion levels on the clinical results of adult isthmic spondylolisthesis patients who had undergone posterior instrumentation and PLF. Materials and Methods This retrospective study comprised 37 (20 male, 17 female) patients with isthmic spondylolisthesis who had undergone posterior instrumentation and PLF between January 2005 and May 2011. Patients with spondylolisthesis other than Type 2 according to the Wiltse classification were excluded from the study. Pre and post-operative radiological evaluation was made by anteroposterior, lateral, oblique and lateral flexion-extension x-rays. Preoperative spondylolisthesis slippage grading was evaluated according to the Meyerding classification from the preoperative radiographs. The decompression decision was made preoperatively according to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and patients preoperative neurological evaluation. Preoperative and postoperative neurological status, duration of surgery, number of fused and instrumented levels, total blood loss and complications were evaluated from the clinical database. For clinical evaluation of surgical outcomes, the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) a nd Visual Analog Scale (VAS) applied at the final follow-up were used. 3.1 Surgical procedure: Exposure was obtained from the spinous processes to the transverse processes bilaterally throughout segments planned for fusion. Under fluoroscopic control, 6.5 mm pedicle screws were placed by free-hand technique. No reduction manoeuvre was used. Decompression of the segments, which had been determined by preoperative MRI and clinical examination was performed for the patients with neurological deficit. In all cases PLF was performed. In the area planned for fusion, the spinous processes were resected, peeled off from soft tissues and used for grafting with demineralized bone matrix. Patients were mobilized with a soft brace on the first postoperative day and the brace was continued for 3 months. (Figure 1, 2) 3.2 Statistical analysis We used the SPSS software package (version 15.0, SPSS, Chicago, IL) and expressed categorical variables as percentages and continuous variables as mean ± standard deviation (SD) or median (quartiles). Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to evaluate whether the distribution of continuous variables was normal. For parameters that showed normal distribution we used the paired sample t test and for parameters that did not show normal distribution the Mann-Whitney U-test was used. Chi-square test was used to analyze categorical variables. Statistical significance was set at p Results All patients had a history of at least 3 months of lumbar pain due to the spondylolisthesis, which had proved to be resistant to conservative treatment. The mean age of the patients was 36.4 ± 9.2 years and the mean follow-up period was 34.3 months. Low-grade isthmic spondylolisthesis was present at L5-S1 level in 23 patients, at L4-5 level in 13 patients and at L3-4 level in 1 patient. Two-level fusion was applied to 22 patients and single-level fusion was applied to 15 patients. Decompression was performed on 7 patients in the two-level fusion group and on 6 patients in the single-level fusion group. There were no neurological complications after surgery in either group. Mean duration of surgery for single-level and two-level surgery was 160 minutes and 190 minutes (160-240), and average blood loss was 285 ml and 390 ml respectively. There were no differences between the two groups in terms of demographic properties (Table 1). One of the patients in the two-level PLF group had superficial infection and was treated with debridement and antibiotheraphy. No union complications were seen in the two-level PLF group but in the single-level PLF group, screw loosening occurred in 3 patients and screw breakage in 1 due to the pseudoarthrosis. These four patients were revised with two-level PLF. (Figure 3) ODI scores from the final follow-up were 12.2 ±6.2 in the single-level PLF group, and 9.2  ± 6.4 in the two-level PLF group (p=0,035). VAS scores were 3.2 ±1.7 in the single-level PLF group and 2.9 ±1.6 in the two-level PLF group (p=0.043). The ODI and VAS scores of the patients revised with two- level PLF were excluded from the clinical evaluation. Discussion Lumbar spondylolysthesis has several etiopathogenetic factors as was shown by Marchetti and Bartolozzi giving rise to variations in pathological anatomy, radiological findings, age and clinical symptoms of the patients on diagnosis. When conservative treatment options fail, surgery becomes the next step. Although there have been a large number of studies on spondylolisthesis, there is no clear evidence for a single superior treatment option. Anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF), posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) and PLF with/without instrumentation are the most widely accepted surgical methods. Whilst PLF with instrumentation is the most preferred treatment for most authors, there is no scientific evidence showing that PLF is disadvantageous compared to PLIF or circumferential fusion (8-11) even though the major theoretical advantage of PLIF and circumferential fusion seems to have resulted in improved outcomes compared with PLF. Ekman et al (12) found that the type of fusi on, whether PLIF or PLF, did not affect the outcome of surgical treatment of adult isthmic spondylolisthesis over a two year follow-up period. Furthermore, PLIF is a more invasive, technically more difficult method requiring a longer operative time, which may result in increased blood loss and higher complication rates (12, 13). Similarly, Kim et al. could not demonstrate any difference between ALIF and PLF with instrumentation (11). Although circumferential fusion was reported as significantly better than PLF at 6 months and 1 year in a study by Swan, no difference was determined at two years (14). In a systematic review of 29 high quality studies, Jacobs and al. found no difference between different fusion techniques (15). In the current study the treatment choice was PLF with instrumentation which is a relatively easy method with a shorter operating time and lower blood loss compared to other techniques in literature. When performing PLF, slip reduction can be achieved during the same procedure. The advantages of slip reduction include improved spine biomechanics, better nerve root decompression and a better opportunity for fusion by relieving tension and shear forces (5). Although the major disadvantage of slip reduction is increased risk of neurological injury, there have been numerous studies evaluating slip reduction for adult low grade spondylolisthesis (14, 16-18). In the current study, slip reduction was not performed to avoid the possibility of potential neurological damage and as all the cases had low grade isthmic spondylolisthesis. To protect one more mobile segment, some authors have preferred single-level postero-lateral instrumentation and fusion instead of two-level (6, 13, 15). However, there is no scientific proof to help determine the number of fusion levels and this decision is based on the surgeon’s empirical experience. In a prospective study by Inage et al, two-level fusion with local bone grafts was shown to cause increased pseudoarthrosis (6). Similarly in a study by Deguchi et al, single-level fusions showed an 82% fusion rate, and two-level fusions, a 74% rate radiologically (19). Higher fusion rates in the two-level fusion group were achieved with rigid spinal implants. The clinical success of that study correlated with the radiological fusion rates. Contrary to the information in literature, local bone grafts mixed with demineralized bone matrix (DBM) were used in the current study to achieve union for both groups and no union problem was seen in the two-level fusion group. Pseudoarthros is was observed in four cases in the one -level fusion group. Although some authors have reported incongruity between the clinical results of spondylolisthesis patients and union rates, VAS and ODI are the most reliable clinical tests to evaluate spondylolythesis (9, 10, 20). The results of the current study reveal that two-level posterior instrumentation with PLF has better results than single-level surgery according to VAS and ODI. This study has some limitations. Firstly, the retrospective design did not allow for uniformity of the groups. The number of patients was also limited to achieve generalized results. Although the pedicle screws were all 6.5 mm in size, they were not all from the same manufacturer, so implant problems were disregarded. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that two-level posterior instrumentation and PLF with local bone grafts and DBM have significantly better clinical and radiological results than single-level surgery. To avoid potential complications of PLIF, two-level PLF can be an alternative treatment option. References 1.Floman Y. Progression of lumbosacral isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults. Spine. 2000;25(3):342-7. 2.Fredrickson BE, Baker D, McHolick WJ, Yuan HA, Lubicky JP. The natural history of spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis. The Journal of bone and joint surgery American volume. 1984;66(5):699-707. 3.Osterman K, Schlenzka D, Poussa M, Seitsalo S, Virta L. Isthmic spondylolisthesis in symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects, epidemiology, and natural history with special reference to disk abnormality and mode of treatment. Clinical orthopaedics and related research. 1993(297):65-70. 4.Moller H, Hedlund R. Surgery versus conservative management in adult isthmic spondylolisthesisa prospective randomized study: part 1. Spine. 2000;25(13):1711-5. 5.Floman Y, Millgram MA, Ashkenazi E, Smorgick Y, Rand N. Instrumented slip reduction and fusion for painful unstable isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults. Journal of spinal disorders techniques. 2008;21(7):477-83. 6.Inage K, Ohtori S, Koshi T, Suzuki M, Takaso M, Yamashita M, et al. One, two-, and three-level instrumented posterolateral fusion of the lumbar spine with a local bone graft: a prospective study with a 2-year follow-up. Spine. 2011;36(17):1392-6. 7.Zagra A, Giudici F, Minoia L, Corriero AS, Zagra L. Long-term results of pediculo-body fixation and posterolateral fusion for lumbar spondylolisthesis. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2009;18 Suppl 1:151-5. 8.Bernhardt M, Swartz DE, Clothiaux PL, Crowell RR, White AA, 3rd. Posterolateral lumbar and lumbosacral fusion with and without pedicle screw internal fixation. Clinical orthopaedics and related research. 1992(284):109-15. 9.Fischgrund JS, Mackay M, Herkowitz HN, Brower R, Montgomery DM, Kurz LT. 1997 Volvo Award winner in clinical studies. Degenerative lumbar spondylolisthesis with spinal stenosis: a prospective, randomized study comparing decompressive laminectomy and arthrodesis with and without spinal instrumentation. Spine. 1997;22(24):2807-12. 10.Herkowitz HN, Kurz LT. Degenerative lumbar spondylolisthesis with spinal stenosis. A prospective study comparing decompression with decompression and intertransverse process arthrodesis. The Journal of bone and joint surgery American volume. 1991;73(6):802-8. 11.Kim NH, Lee JW. Anterior interbody fusion versus posterolateral fusion with transpedicular fixation for isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults. A comparison of clinical results. Spine. 1999;24(8):812-6; discussion 7. 12.Ekman P, Moller H, Tullberg T, Neumann P, Hedlund R. Posterior lumbar interbody fusion versus posterolateral fusion in adult isthmic spondylolisthesis. Spine. 2007;32(20):2178-83. 13.Madan S, Boeree NR. Outcome of posterior lumbar interbody fusion versus posterolateral fusion for spondylolytic spondylolisthesis. Spine. 2002;27(14):1536-42. 14.Swan J, Hurwitz E, Malek F, van den Haak E, Cheng I, Alamin T, et al. Surgical treatment for unstable low-grade isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults: a prospective controlled study of posterior instrumented fusion compared with combined anterior-posterior fusion. The spine journal : official journal of the North American Spine Society. 2006;6(6):606-14. 15.Jacobs WC, Vreeling A, De Kleuver M. Fusion for low-grade adult isthmic spondylolisthesis: a systematic review of the literature. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2006;15(4):391-402. 16.Sears W. Posterior lumbar interbody fusion for lytic spondylolisthesis: restoration of sagittal balance using insert-and-rotate interbody spacers. The spine journal : official journal of the North American Spine Society. 2005;5(2):161-9. 17.Spruit M, van Jonbergen JP, de Kleuver M. A concise follow-up of a previous report: posterior reduction and anterior lumbar interbody fusion in symptomatic low-grade adult isthmic spondylolisthesis. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2005;14(9):828-32. 18.Suk SI, Lee CK, Kim WJ, Lee JH, Cho KJ, Kim HG. Adding posterior lumbar interbody fusion to pedicle screw fixation and posterolateral fusion after decompression in spondylolytic spondylolisthesis. Spine. 1997;22(2):210-9; discussion 9-20. 19.Deguchi M, Rapoff AJ, Zdeblick TA. Posterolateral fusion for isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults: analysis of fusion rate and clinical results. Journal of spinal disorders. 1998;11(6):459-64. 20.Ohtori S, Suzuki M, Koshi T, Takaso M, Yamashita M, Yamauchi K, et al. Single-level instrumented posterolateral fusion of the lumbar spine with a local bone graft versus an iliac crest bone graft: a prospective, randomized study with a 2-year follow-up. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2011;20(4):635-9. Tables Table 1. Paramaters of groups during surgery 1

Into the Lions Mouth :: China Chinese Culture Papers

Into the Lion's Mouth It is the last Saturday in September and the Brown University lion dance team is about to perform. Eleven students sit on the floor of Leung Gallery. The nine team members walk to the front of the room, seven Chinese, two Caucasian. Each wears a shirt bearing a black and white lion design on the front and the words "Brown Lion Dance" emblazed across the back. The boys who will make up the two lions - Grant, John, Chris and Michael - wear bright yellow pants with orange and gold tassels encircling each leg, meant to mimic fur. The instrumentalists, Cisco and Larissa, wear black pants and black shoes, and Peter Quon, the teaser, sports a navy blue silk ensemble reminiscent of a rich man's pajamas. He dons a mask made of brightly lacquered peach paper mache, with pink dots for cheeks, ruby red lips and thick, black eyebrows. He will signal the lions into place for each stunt. The four boys disappear underneath the heads and tails. The team's captain Brian Fong welcomes the freshmen, but keeps his remarks brief. He can't convey this magic - this magic that keeps him and his team here, week after week, year after year - with words. Brian and the team members move into place. Cisco raises his drumsticks and brings them down hard on the drums. The cymbals crash. The performance begins. Historians trace Chinese lion dancing back to a band of roving Persians who traveled to China via the Silk Road during the T'ang Dynasty (618- 906 A.D.). They performed their Nevruz ("New Day") festival for the emperor who, like his people, had never seen a lion before. The Persians' dance pleased the emperor so much that he ordered the lion to be incorporated into the most important of Chinese festivals, the Harvest Moon and New Year's celebrations. The Chinese, however love to tell another story of how this art form came to be: the Legend of the Nien. In ancient times, a creature called the Nien roamed throughout China, devouring man and beast. News of these atrocities reached a remote mountain village and prompted its inhabitants to seek protection from the mighty lion. When the Nien finally stormed into the village, the lion intercepted him and the two beasts fought a terrible battle. The lion emerged victorious and the wounded Nien slunk away into the shadows of the forest, vowing to return in exactly one year to exact vengeance.

How the Media Portrays the Occupy Wall Street Movement Essay -- Media,

The fact that media can influence politics is readily evident from the campaign trail, to the passing of laws, to grass roots campaigns such as Occupy Wall Street. The Occupy Wall Street campaign has been portrayed negatively by the mainstream media outlets. Newspapers, radio, television, and the internet have painted the movement with offensive undertones, reporting the lows of the movement rather than the revolutionary aspects of the movement. A possible reason that the media has consistently framed this movement in a negative manner is that the movement is operating against the forces of society. This opposing issue between the rich conservative mass media and the Occupy Wall Street movement has drawn the interest of the public from all walks to life to witness the song and dance being framed against the Occupiers. Who is winning this dance off? An examination of the facts will reveal how well this framing is influencing the political forces. The four forces of socialization, or how an audience, technology, the media industry and the product of the various media outlets react in the social world and the social construction of reality or the power to influence have concentrated on the Occupy Wall Street (Croteau, Hoynes, & Milan, 2012). Audiences have tuned into this movement since the first protest in September of 2011 (Occupy Wall Street, 2011). Protestors have been painted as â€Å"a motley collection of punks, anarchists, socialists, hackers, liberals, and artists† (Scherer, 2011, p. 22). A report by CNN (2011) stereotyped the protestors as hypocrites, because they have recently occupied an office near Wall Street, with a copier and furnishings, instead of the parks they had formerly protested from. An Occupy rep resp... ... that the one percent is thriving, while the rest of America is starving, all because big business controls politics in America (Occupy, 2011). It is too early to call, but in the end if Occupiers lose the competition, at least they danced. Works Cited CNN. (2011). Exclusive: Inside offices of Occupy Wall Street. Retrieved from, http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/12/01/exclusive-inside-the-offices-of-occupy-wall-street/ Croteau, D., Hoynes, W., & Milan, S. (2012). Media/society (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Occupy Wall Street. (2011). About. Retrieved from, http://occupywallst.org/about/ Scherer, M. (2011). Taking it to the Streets. Time. 178(16). P. 20-24. Tharoor, I., & Rawlings, N. (2011). ‘The whole world is watching’: Occupy Wall Street stares down NYPD. Retrieved from, http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2096976,00.html

The Effect of Childhood Trauma on Brain Development Essay -- Child Abu

According to the Center for Disease Control, one in every three girls and one in every five boys are sexually abused by an adult at some time during childhood. Child abuse is a vicious cycle. After a child is abused it puts a deterrent on his or her ability to succeed in life. Examples of this are adults who were abused as children are twice as likely to become abusers themselves. The majority of people in prisons were abused as children. It is no wonder why childhood trauma has such a horrible impact on a person’s personality and brain. Trauma is a serious consideration in special education. When a child is exposed to a traumatic event, such as abuse, neglect or death, it can have a lifelong effect on their mental health. Although there are numerous effects followed by childhood trauma the brain chemistry of neurotransmitters is most affected. First a person might ask what neurotransmitters are. A perfect example is a lock and a key. Neurotransmitters are keys and each one activates different receptors (locks). Today there is known to be sixty chemicals that play a role in transferring information throughout the brain and body, each of which differently effect thought, feeling, and behavior. During childhood is when a person is most impressionable. Therefore when a child has suffered any physical, sexual, or emotional abuse these instances play a major role on the connections to their brain and the way that person will react to any given situation. If a child was frequently abused their brain would continuously be in high stress alert. According to The Healing Center- On Line, studies on the physiological effects of trauma have found profound and substantial effects within multiple interconnected neurobiological syst... ...rth a lot of effort to secure the damaged connections of their brain. After the trauma the person could be haunted by nightmares or constantly bothered by their inability to recall the incident fully, due to the damaged hippocampus. Trauma is as an event more overwhelming than a person ordinarily would be expected to encounter. Therefore the individual would suffer more than a few effects including eternal change such as thought process, inability to learn properly, difficulty trusting people, difficulty in socializing, and basically an inability to live their life to the fullest without distraction. If someone knew a child in danger of abuse they should call 1800-4-A-child. The longer the child is traumatized the greater the effects will be on the chemistry of their brain, and the less chance they have of overcoming the damage in order to live a life of normalcy.

Archetypes Case Study Essay

1. Which are the archetypes does Verbeke distinguish? Draw the figures associated with these archetypes. Verbeke distguish between 4 types of archetypes and they are the following: Centralized exporter: Home country managed firm. Firm specific advantage in its final products. Standardized products manufactured at home. Only the transferable firm specific advantages are taken to the host country, meaning that they try to make exporting successful in international markets. No development of location bound firm specific advantages. International projector: Clones home operations into host countries. Knowledge based firm specific advantages are replicated from home country. Only the internationally transferable firm specific advantages are taken to the host country. No development of location bound firm’s specific advantages. The international projector MNE seeks international expansion by projecting its home country success recipes abroad. International coordinator: Its main firm specific advantage is that it can coordinate location advantages (e.g., production capacity to access abundant natural resources) present in multiple countries. International operations are specialized in specific value-added activities across borders. Use internationally transferable firm specific advantages in each host country to develop location-bound firm specific advantages that fit the host country location factors. Multi-centered MNE: Each host county develops own location bound firm specific advantages, only transfers core routines (e.g., financial management). A set of entrepreneurial subsidiaries go abroad, to acquire knowledge for future firm specific advantage development. Local adaptation is the foundation of the international strategy. 2. Is there one best model? Why or why not? There is no best model because these models all depend on the firm specific advantages that an organization has its power on, and also on the host countries appeal for business. Firm specific advantages in the home country  can be a success, but the question is if those firm specific advantages are also a success in the host country? 3. Do you consider a centralized exporter a true multinational? A centralized exporter can be a true multinational if it derives a quarter of its revenue from operations outside of its home country and also if it operates in different host countries, and its managed by a core headquarter in the home country. Warner Bros. Pictures, a major US motion picture studio is a multinational which is operational through exporting its motion pictures. Most of its revenue is attained from its exports and of course from its home country the US. 4. What does it mean that the FSA is embodied in the product in case of an international projector? A product that has embodied a firm specific advantage means that the product contains in it a feature that makes the company with greater success than its former competitors. This firm specific advantage cannot be seen as a stand-alone component in the organization, in order to leverage success it can only be seen as a firm specific advantage within its final product. So this firm specific advantage is not from its operations such as great employee relationship, but only through the final product. This is seen in the centralized exporter. In the international projector this is not the case because they replicate their firm specific advantages to go abroad and use them, such as an advanced technology or secret recipe like Coca cola has one. A good example is Ford, which cloned its American operations into Canada and Europe. Europe was a challenge for Ford due to a widespread prejudice against American cars sold in Europe. 5. Does the firm develop FSAs in the host country in case of the international projector? No the firm which uses the archetype of international projector as a strategy does not develop firm specific advantages in the host country, what this organization do is cloning their home country firm specific advantages to the host countries, so in other words just using success firm specific advantages from home country to the host country. 6. Why is the international coordinator an example of global value chain? The international coordinator archetype is an example of global value chain because it can coordinate different location advantage operations in a wide variety of different geographies in the same period. Global value chains now contain activities that are tightly integrated. This means that firms and workers in widely separated locations affect one another more than they have in the past. So for example BP an international coordinator, when there where oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico, it suddenly affected all other BP operations, because their branding image was looked in a worse way, decreasing its organization reputation. 7. Why is a multi-centered MNE characterized by maximum local responsiveness? A multi-centered MNE is characterized by maximum local responsiveness because the foundation of a multi-centered archetype is local adaptation. This local responsiveness is evaluated and analyzed by different entrepreneurial subsidiaries from the organization that go abroad, so that new firm specific advantages can be developed. This newly firm specific advantage in the host country will conform with its host customers and through those means a good local adaptation can be attained. 8. The FSA is also framed in terms of core competences. That is the FSA is strongly related to the core competences of a firm. What key characteristics does Verbeke list for these core competences? There are 4 key characteristics of core competences: – Be difficult for competitors to imitate in terms of achieving the required internal coordination and learning. – Provide potential access to a wide variety of markets – Make a significant contribution to customer needs. – The loss of a core competence would have an important negative effect on the firm’s present and future performance, in terms of value creation. 9. What critique does Verbeke have on the concept of core competences? Core competencies are the company’s most important FSAs: its vital routines and recombination abilities. Recombination abilities are Locating resources, especially knowledge, as response to differences between national and foreign environments, and to satisfy new stakeholders’ demands. Verbeke has a few critiques regarding the concept of core competences and they are the following: Core competences of organizations in industries may differ. Prahalad & Hamel don’t include country factors in their analysis. Their theory overestimates the role of strategic management. Strategic management role is to develop strategic architecture. Develop a road map for the future which identifies core competencies to build the required technologies. In the other side their theory underestimates the role of host country location factors. Another critique from Verbeke is that core competences are historically driven. 10. What are the five forces Porter distinguishes? Explain these in your own words. The five forces Porter distinguishes is about how location advantages that affect firm competitiveness and firm specific advantage development. -Factor conditions: This is a force which is related to production factors such as capital, labor, infrastructure, scientific knowledge, technology. It gives improvement to problematic issues through innovation and continuous learning. A good example from the book is: In case of Japan, firms in several industries such as steel, shipbuilding and automobiles developed technological and design expertise to overcome a lack of natural resources and the just-in-time production process was pioneered in response to lack of affordable warehousing space. -Demand conditions: If customers increase their demand increasing external pressures to firms, then it gives the firm a good competitive advantage. So in order to gain this demand to customers the firm has to innovate a nd respond to the customer sophistication by adapting its technology and design features. This is good for future global  expansion, because the firm already gains early insights into future needs of customers or in other words buyer sophistication. -Related and supported industries: High quality home based suppliers which have great insight into international competition. These suppliers with good know how innovate through more efficient inputs, and spill knowledge between other suppliers within the firm through exchange of ideas, and different ways of communication. This is great for international competition. -Firm strategy, industry structure and rivalry: Domestic rivalry is good for international competitiveness. This forces firms to focus on firm specific advantages development beyond their home location advantages. This helps the firm become an international rival. So this is a well-functioning industry. -Government and chance: Luck plays a role, for example, a lucky innovation process that was coincidentally created and a valuable product with good technology or process knowledge was attained. This is often a long-term consequence. Government are the general governments of which are not corrupt. 11. How does Porter’s model fit in figure 1.2? Where does it belong? Porters fit model fit in figure 1.2 because the model is all about how to use location advantages to increase competition and force its firm to develop a firm specific advantage in order to go across the international border and use it as a competitive advantage abroad. This firm specific advantage can get them access into the development of a location bound firm specific advantage across borders. I think Porters model fits in the location advantages section at home country triangle and then it moves across to all the other host sections according to its force. 12. What is the big problem of Porters model when applied in the context of international business? Each industry has its own characteristics leading to different patterns of international competitiveness. According to Verbeke’s critique, firm specific advantages are home market determined, and Porters model has too much focus on the home market. In international business you need to take  account both markets, so the home market as well as the host country. International business is about how to succeed abroad, and only having emphasis on the home market that is not very attainable. Firms only go abroad if they can establish a match between their firm specific advantages and the location advantages to the host markets.

Effects of lobbying and its effectiveness in America Essay

Effects of lobbying and its effectiveness in America Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A lobbyist is anyone with a clear understanding of working of the federal government and the legislative actions taken each day as well as their impacts. He might represent an individual, a party, company or a group of people (Hrebanar, 2009). Yearly, many dollars are spent on lobbyists in Washington DC. We shall discuss about the effects and effectiveness in this city.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For a start, not every American citizen can approach members of the Congress or to government officials to have their interests addressed. Anyone who has an issue seeks the help of lobbyists who represents their interests to the congress. The fee charged is high but one is fully represented and listened to. They represent anyone who seeks their help not the interest of all citizens. This is a direct form of corruption.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The lobbying companies make a lot of profits based on the purpose of forming the company. The benefits may be in terms of direct cash, reduction of taxes or being awarded any contract of government. This is a form of corruption and unfairness because the citizens who cannot afford to approach them can’t win such tenders or have any interest in the congress.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many companies opt to pay lobbyists who in turn help them evade paying the corporate tax of 35%. The whole process is facilitated by politicians receiving money from the lobbyists (Waterhouse, 2013). This leads to reduction in the income of the country in terms of taxes collected thus the economy is also affected. Living standards of citizens also become poorer because they are forced to pay more taxes for the government to operate efficiently.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Since lobbyists have a great impact on the laws passed in the Congress, some important regulations may be passed in favor of corporations which carry out illegal activities such as emission of poisonous gases to the atmosphere or trafficking of drugs. Congress members and other officers in governmentare paid to help in passing these regulations. This is harmful to the general public since the products affect them negatively. In this case, environmentalpollution through poisonous gases increases cases of cancer and. Practical examples of such companies are tobacco and extraction companies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lobbyists are not always effective even though they have much influence in the government and its officials. The court is always a fair representer of the normal citizens and it may rule that a regulation should not be passed because of its impact on the American society. A good example is when the court stopped the FDA tried to introduce the generic version of Lovenox but the court stopped the procedure despite the huge sums of money the company spend on lobbying. In addition, there are leaders in power who don’t accept any type of bribes so the influence of lobbyists does not affect their decisions pertaining some regulations or policies. These leaders condemn fully the activities of lobbyists hence the regulations passed and enforced in the country are in favor of the citizen’s not individual groups or companies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, lobbyism is rampant in America especially in Washington and the results of such groups may affect the normal citizens positively or negatively. A significant amount of capital is spent on lobbying which reduces the net income on taxes hence affecting the economy. The health and normal lives of citizens are largely affected by lobbyism. Luckily, they are not effective always thus some of their policies are neglected especially by the court and no-corrupt officers. The best way possible out of this is through campaigns to alert government officials of the effects of lobbying. References Hrebenar, R. J., & Morgan, B. B. (2009).Lobbying in America: A reference handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. Waterhouse, B. C. (2013). Lobbying America: The politics of business from Nixon to NAFTA. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Source document